China’s presence in Africa elicits varying responses. On the one hand, some economists, entrepreneurs and political scientists accuse China of being in Africa to access or exploit the continent’s resources at very little or no cost. Consequently, they charge that China is exploiting Africa. On the other hand, supporters of China’s presence in Africa celebrate the partnership and the “anti-imperialist” spirit that they decipher in the interaction between Africa and China. This article deliberately circumvents this dominant debate but seeks to unearth one particular concept that could ensure that relations between Africa and China are built on a firm foundation. We utilize the concept of reciprocity in Zimbabwean and Chinese cultures to illustrate how relations between the two can have a solid ethical base.

In order to put relations between Zimbabwe and China into their proper context, the first section focuses on the concept of reciprocity in Zimbabwean culture. The second section addresses the same concept with particular reference to Chinese culture, while the third section summarizes trade relations between the two countries within the context of the concept of reciprocity in the two cultures. We argue that “mining” the concept of reciprocity, more than mining minerals, can provide a more harmonious base for Zimbabwe (and Africa)-China relations.

I. Reciprocity in the Zimbabwean Culture

Zimbabwe and China have established sound relations, spanning over a long period of time. Zimbabwe’s approach to interacting with China is informed by her cultural orientation. The concept of reciprocity plays a major role in this regard. In the indigenous philosophy, the Shona proverb, “kandiro kanopfumba kunobva kamwe” (literally: “a plate goes where a plate comes from”) expresses the concept of reciprocity in a very informative way. This understanding of reciprocity is based on the dignity and collaboration of individuals and families. The spirit of unhu/ubuntu is predicated on the understanding that everyone has something to offer, no matter how underprivileged or weak they may appear. Consequently, relations between those who appear weak and those who appear strong should be based on mutual respect. Unhu (humanness) requires that one cultivates a spirit of sharing.[1]

For the Shona and the Ndebele, generosity is not a threat to economic viability. Consequently, one is expected to extend generosity to neighbours and travellers equally. A Ndebele proverb captures this beautifully, “Unyawo alulampumulo” (the foot has no rest). Similarly, the Shona people say, “mweni haapedzi dura” (the visitor does not empty the granary). These proverbs place emphasis on the need for hospitality and nurturing favourable relationships with outsiders.[2] In such context, everyone deserves a place at the table and no one may be dismissed as “lacking resources” or “coming from too far” or “looking too different.” Reciprocity suggests that all members of the community (the immediate and the wider global one) must be motivated by the desire to share equally and to uphold the dignity of the next person.

In Shona and Ndebele philosophy, “outsiders” could be accommodated if and when they exhibited “unhu” (the quality of being human). It follows, then, that in interpersonal (and, as is the case with this article, in international) relations, maximum value is placed on integrity. Internally, members of the community are expected to avoid exploitation and chicanery. Externally, they are expected to extend hospitality to those they interact with. According to Tarisayi A. Chimuka, Shona virtues can be put in various categories, “...’kunzwanana’ (mutual understanding), ‘kugarisana’ (peaceful co-existence), ‘kuwadzana’ (fellowship), ‘hushamwari’ (friendship), ‘kudyidzana’ (this word captures the idea of mutual hospitality but is not reducible to it), and ‘mushandirapamwe’ (co-operation).”[3] We elaborate on these concepts below as they provide a durable basis for Zimbabwe’s interaction with China.

1.1 Mutual Understanding and Peaceful Co-Existence

Indigenous Zimbabwean philosophy celebrates mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence. Members of the community have an obligation to always promote understanding and peace. Only renegades and social outcasts go out to disturb communal peace. It follows, therefore, that neighbours must interact with warmth. Effective conflict management strategies have always operated within families, as well as at community levels. Once again, proverbs highlight the importance of ensuring that peace prevails. Nyoni has demonstrated how proverbs promote conflict resolution strategies such as accommodation, compromise and avoidance.[4]

By promoting mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence, indigenous cultures seek to minimize interference in the internal affairs of others. Gossiping, wanting to control what happens in other families and other forms of meddling are strongly discouraged. According to one saying, there are only two parties to a conversation. Any third party is eavesdropping (“vaviri vaviri, wechitatu muzvinaguwa”). As we shall highlight below, this has informed Zimbabwe’s very principled stance regarding non-interference in her internal affairs. China too has embraced the principle of non-interference in its interaction with Africa, although the concept has generated considerable debate.

Mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence both feed into and are informed by reciprocity. When there is mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence, there is a higher probability of reciprocity between neighbours. In turn, relationships that are characterized by reciprocity foster mutual understanding and peaceful co-existence. Indigenous philosophy emphasizes the need to defend the interests of one’s neighbour. A good neighbour does not sit by when danger stalks his/her own neighbour. Instead, s/he is expected to ensure that the danger is averted and the neighbour is safe.

1.2 Friendship and Hospitality

The philosophy of unhu/ubuntu is built on the conviction that a human being is intrinsically linked to others in a web of relationships. No human being is supposed to lead a lonely life, but everyone must be nurtured and nourished by his/her interaction with others. Consequently, friendships must be established and deepened. Among the Zezuru, a Shona sub-group found in Zimbabwe, a special friend called sahwira (“funeral friend”) plays a very important role in the social, economic, and spiritual life of the members of society. Philemon Chikafu  argues that the sahwira is the family advisor, reconciler, helps to bury his friend, alerts and gives warning to his friend in case of danger and provides food in times of scarcity.[5]

From the above list, one can see that friendship is not taken lightly in indigenous cultures. It is a major investment which is sealed with a covenant in the manner of the Old Testament covenant. A sahwira is not only an “all-weather friend” (Zimbabwe’s favourite and consistent description of China as we illustrate below), but is also one who will do all and give all for his or her friend to thrive. Ritual friends establish a covenant where they are committed to supporting each other in all endeavours. Again, the concept of reciprocity is operational in the establishment of such covenants. Both parties have benefits and obligations. However, the underlying philosophy is that a “win-win” situation will prevail.

1.3 Co-operation

There are numerous proverbs in indigenous Zimbabwean (and African) cultures that celebrate working together. The dominant thinking is that the collective is better placed to achieve more than the individual. This is not meant to stifle individual creativity and effort, but to place emphasis on the need for the individual to recognize the reality that a human being thrives only in the context of larger webs or relationships. One who is aloof, detached and always by him/herself attracts the charge of being a witch/sorcerer (muroyi). Apart from the negative metaphysical connotations that accompany the concept of witchcraft, essentially a witch is one given to anti-social behaviour.[6] In this respect, individuals who are selfish, refuse to interact with others and are preoccupied with their own issues are labelled witches.

Members of the community are expected to engage in collective action to promote food security and to meet other ideals. The idea of collectivism (humwe) or oneness is, therefore, extolled. It is believed that working together might appear cumbersome initially, but it achieves better results in the long run. Numerous proverbs promote the need for co-operation and shunning individualism. In folktales, stubborn, anti-social individuals have a sad ending. Those who think they can do better alone are shown regretting their actions. Consequently, individuals and communities are encouraged to forge ties and links with others. Solitude is frowned upon, while interaction and co-operation (kudyidzana) is promoted.

From the foregoing, it becomes evident that indigenous Zimbabwean philosophy has placed emphasis on reciprocity as the foundational concept underlying interpersonal and trans-community relationships. Although the modern nation-state eschews these “traditional” values and purports to have embraced Western values, in this article we argue that the indigenous philosophy remains informative. In the following section, we explore the concept of reciprocity in Chinese culture. This, then, will enable us to examine Zimbabwe-China relations more critically in the sections that will follow.

II. Reciprocity in Chinese Culture

The culture of the Chinese is one of the most long-serving and sophisticated cultures of the world. It has shaped the Chinese way of thinking and survival. Most aspects of traditional Chinese culture are still being observed in modern-day China. One of the central tenets of Chinese culture is reciprocity. As the English saying goes, “Do unto others as you would want them to do unto you”, the Chinese golden rule is mostly centered on reciprocity. Confucius, the Father of the Confucian theory talks of reciprocity as theory of “hui bao” which, simply translated, is “to return, pay back,” in the positive sense, for sure. This principle of ‘‘hui bao” has played a major role in shaping Chinese approach to reciprocity both in social and business structures. In addition, Confucius promoted ren (humaneness or perfect virtue). Thus:

       In Chapter IV of The Analects, Confucius describes the rare person who is not motivated by personal profit but by what is moral, is concerned with self-improvement rather than public recognition, is ever mindful of parents, speaks cautiously but acts quickly, and regards human nature as basically good.[7]

The Chinese concept of reciprocity resonates with the Shona saying “kandiro kanoenda kunobva kamwe” or the English “one good turn deserves another” (discussed above). So, for example, in business if one company offers a good service, the recipient company is expected to do exactly the same should it engage the first company’s services in the future. The Chinese actually keep records of good gestures that it is fairly common to travel to China and meet someone who was hosted well in Zimbabwe who will in return treat one well, simply because he or she is Zimbabwean. Amongst the Chinese themselves, they will always remember what a colleague or family member has done for them and the favor will be returned. For instance, it is an unspoken or assumed rule of conduct that at every function a guest should give a gift which in Chinese culture is normally a red envelope with money, “hong bao”. The contents of the hong bao are carefully recorded and when time comes the gesture will be returned.

There are 5 key elements or concepts found in the Chinese culture that help to clarify the theory of reciprocity. All these put a lot of emphasis on a good relationship with the next person and seek to cultivate and enhance the togetherness of people in a community. It also goes to shape the way they do business with the international community, although we are not saying that every Chinese home and abroad follows the key elements of reciprocity to the book. The five key elements or concepts are:
‘Guanxi’-Relations
‘Renqing’-Human emotion and interaction
‘Li’- Etiquette
‘Keqi’-Politeness
‘Lian’ or ‘Mianzi’-Face
These concepts will be explained in detail in the paragraphs below.

‘Guanxi’ is used to describe people’s relationship, personal contacts or connections.[8] It is the kind of friendship where demands can be made and be met without too much questioning. It applies in both the social and business fraternity. Some critics have argued that this guanxi has been misused at times as a bribe.

Guanxi  has a positive impact on promoting reciprocity. It is a system or practice that entails people to bond and respect each other’s obligations. It is utilized normally among people with the same interests and at times of the same rank, such as business partners, old friends, and workmates. The Chinese believe that to succeed in business, one’s ‘guanxi’ with influential people in that line of business should be strong. This has even spilled to the international community where to attain business tenders in any foreign country you have to oil the hands of those you are dealing with. The Chinese government in a bid to maintain ‘guanxi’ in African countries has embarked on the tradition of giving out scholarships to students of a particular country. Thus:

China prefers to show an ‘exchange’/ ‘cooperation picture to the world, it is different from the one-way educational aid of the traditional Western donor-recipient relationship. The logic of this Chinese approach is not ‘helping you develop education in order to catch up with our standard of knowledge economy,’ but ‘helping you develop education so that we can do more bilateral cooperation and trade in the future.’ Education, inevitably, is the best way to build both political friendship and economic basis for the two sides. It is a kind of ‘win-win’ situation, but can African countries win both diplomatic reciprocity and educational equity?[9]

This supports the undocumented observation that the more students in China from a particular country, the more interest China has in that country: it is all for bilateral co-operation, as both parties have to benefit. All this comes with the belief that a good ‘guanxi’ will facilitate a good market penetration and business success.

‘Renqing’ is the practice of being humane or having human feelings or human emotions inside yourself. Renqing entails an individual to find it inside of them to reciprocate a good thing. It may be a friend that has given one a birthday present and on their own birthday one has to be moved to do the same for them. Renqing is sometimes translated as favor or human obligation/reciprocity.[10]

‘Li’ describes etiquette or a certain rule of conduct. However, in Confucian times ‘Li’ was referred to as deferring to the social hierarchy in the society. An individual is expected to behave according to a certain social dictate. Everyone is expected to know their position in society and act according to the demands of their position or roles. The presence of a Chinese boss commands respect and fear from his employees. We have often wondered if this is why problems have arisen in Sino-Africa companies where Chinese bosses have been found beating up or harassing their not so ‘Li’ workers.[11] A leader is a leader and has to be respected as a leader according to the theory of ‘Li’. ‘Li’ helps maintain relationships.

‘Keqi’ refers to politeness and modesty. ‘Ke’ means guest and ‘qi’ means air or behavior. It is a basic principle that entails an individual to behave politely and to be well-mannered in each and every situation. One is polite to the next person and one behaves well; be it in business or in social interactions. Chinese politeness goes as far as modestly declining compliments. Should one try and complement a Chinese, they are quick to deny the compliment and pass it off as something simple. They often use the expression “nali nali” meaning, “you flatter me.”

‘Lian’ or ‘Mianzi’ means face. This is normally the act of saving face. The Chinese have been known to avoid using the word ‘no’ so as not to embarrass the other party or to save face for both parties. Statements like ‘bu fangbian’ (inconvenient) or ‘tai kunnan’ (too difficult) have been equated as synonyms of ‘NO’. They feel bad to directly say no so that often times than not, in a bid to save face, confusion is created. Their ‘yes’ is also evasive or rather elusive. A lecturer may commend a student’s work as ‘bucuo’ meaning ‘not bad,’ but this does not necessarily mean the work is good. However, the lecturer is willing to save a student from embarrassment. In doing business the Chinese prefer to engage with large companies with a good reputation as this saves their face.

From the foregoing, it is clear that there are many overlaps between indigenous African and Chinese concepts of reciprocity. In both contexts, an individual is encouraged to demonstrate humility, consideration and friendship. Cheating and exploitation are anathema to viable social relationships. In particular, there is emphasis on empathy and consideration. One should not expose the other person to what one would not want to experience themselves. In the following section, we provide a historical overview of Zimbabwe-China bilateral ties.

III. Historical Overview of Zimbabwe-China Bilateral Ties

Brown and Ainely define international relations as “the diplomatic–strategic relations of states.”[12] This section, therefore, analyses the diplomatic-strategic relations between Zimbabwe and China. Manyeruke and Mhandara document the historical record of relations between Zimbabwe and China as follows:

Zimbabwe-China relations date back to over 600 years ago during the days of Admiral Zhen He who was leading a force of 25 000 men with the largest fleet ever seen in this world. It was during the Ming and Qing dynasties when the Chinese established relations with the Munhumutapa Empire, based on trade and cultural exchange. These relations were reinvigorated with the proclamation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949 by Chairman Mao in Beijing.[13]

Therefore, when China assisted Zimbabwe during the latter’s independence struggle in the 1970s, it did so with already deep-rooted historical ties. The People’s Republic of China supported the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) party in its fight against colonialism. The guerrilla fighters received support in the form of arms and ammunition, and China also provided ideological encouragement. Arguably, China’s engagement was fundamental in establishing reciprocal relations between the two states after the attainment of Zimbabwe’s political independence. Commenting on the importance of China’s relations with Zimbabwe at a critical juncture in the latter’s existence, Manyeruke points out:

The issue of colonial legacy should never be taken for granted in international economic relations. Colonial legacy affects present and future relations of states.  The records and footprints cannot be erased easily. Zimbabwe therefore finds herself more at home when dealing with China, her ally when she fought against colonialism. Courting China as an investment and trading partner is based on a level of trust that is from a mere political relationship to an economic level which shows increased confidence with the relationship.[14]

Relations between the two states during Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle to a great extent only served to confirm and establish more firmly pre-liberation movement relations. Mhandara et al note that “the fact alone that imperial China never attempted to conquer Africa makes the current ties considered positively.” [15]Arguably, there was mutual respect and appreciation of each other’s culture and way of life from the two countries. However, the scramble and partition of Africa led to colonization which undermined the existing cultural systems in Southern Africa. White settlers saw their culture as superior to that of colonial territories and imposed their culture on the ‘Dark Continent’ in the name of bringing Christianity, civilization and commerce to Africa. Therefore, when China assisted Zimbabwe in its liberation struggle, it sought to assist the latter to reclaim its identity and culture.

The attainment of Zimbabwe’s independence assisted by China ushered in majority rule and other democratic rights and principles. Manyeruke et al note that immediately after independence, “Maoist ideology was applied to growth and equity policies, which led to the redistribution of income…an increase in the coverage of government services and education and health were offered to the whole population through the Health for All and Education for All programmes.”[16] China’s influence over the governance policies of Zimbabwe, therefore, assisted in improving the standard of living of a previously disadvantaged population.

China, alongside Russia, has, through its veto power, influenced decisions taken by the Security Council (UNSC) in favor of Zimbabwe. China has also supported Zimbabwe’s anti-sanctions campaign. In 2008, China and Russia vetoed the adoption of a United Nations resolution seeking to apply sanctions on Zimbabwe.  China has, therefore, assisted Zimbabwe in the consolidation and preservation of the latter’s democracy as the adoption of sanctions by the UN against Zimbabwe would have had adverse effects upon the development of the country and the standard of living of its citizens.

IV. Complementary Foreign Policies

Zimbabwe-China relations are partly consolidated by their complementary perceptions regarding the conduct of international relations as evidenced in their respective foreign policies. Youdem argues that “a state’s foreign policy is not simply about power and resources: these may be important, but foreign policy also includes history, memory, values, structures, and legacies.” When analyzed, the foreign policies of Zimbabwe and China share similar values perhaps because of the influence of the latter in the former’s establishment.[17] According to Chimanikire and Mashingaidze , Zimbabwe’s foreign policy is anchored in its underlying belief in the self-determination of its citizens – free from external interference.[18] This acknowledges the aims of the liberation movement before independence, which advocated national sovereignty; respect for the territorial integrity of all countries; promotion of equality between nations; and non-discrimination. According to afe.easia.columbia.edu, “China’s foreign policy derives from the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence: mutual respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity, mutual non-aggression, non-interference in each other’s internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.”[19] Zimbabwe, therefore, adopted a number of characteristics of China’s foreign policy and this served to ensure that both countries continue to share the same values and political culture.

Because of the foregoing foreign policy considerations, both China and Zimbabwe have approached a number of international affairs as a united front. An example is the challenging of United Sates of America (USA) hegemony in international affairs. Foot argues that “the rise of China has prompted a realist argument that the unipolar order is leading to the establishment of a Chinese-led anti-hegemonic coalition, and to China’s building up its internal economic and military capabilities in order to become a ‘peer competitor’ of the United States.” In her own respect, Zimbabwe, like China, has also challenged the U.S. hegemony and monopoly of international organisations.[20] For example, President Mugabe in his 2013 address to the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) declared that:

Our small and peaceful country is threatened daily by covetous and bigoted big powers whose hunger for domination and control of other nations and their resources knows no bounds. Shame, shame, shame to the United States of America. Shame, shame, shame to Britain and its allies.[21]

Thus, while on the one hand China is rising as an economic and military challenger to the U.S. and Western hegemony, Zimbabwe has been on the other hand a consistent and vicious challenger of the U.S. and Western political hegemony in international relations. Other areas of mutual understanding between the two countries include Zimbabwe’s support of the One-China policy regarding Taiwan and Tibet as part of China’s mainland. The exemplified complementary foreign policies and conceptions have greatly aided the cementing of bilateral relations between Zimbabwe and China.

V. Trade

As is the case with other African states, China’s relations have been motivated by her need to meet the demand of raw materials back home. According to The Economist “It is fitting that China’s national symbol should be an animal (Panda) that spends 16 hours a day eating bamboo. China is an energy panda that is obsessed by the question of where its next mouthful of bamboo will come from. The Chinese elite see the world in terms of brutal competition for limited resources. China is utterly convinced that it needs to use all the elements of national power—its companies and banks, its aid agencies and diplomats—to get its rightful share of the world’s resources.”[22] The result has been a widespread investment of China in multiple sectors of the Zimbabwean economy, inclusive of mining, agriculture, the energy sector and in construction and utilities. Defense and military bilateral relations have also continued. These investments are ideally mutually beneficial. For example, in 2004, the two countries signed the Economic and Technical agreement. According to Mvutungayi, part of this agreement was the commitment by China to help Zimbabwe improve its tobacco production by providing the necessary resources.[23] As such the agreement was meant to be mutually beneficial as exemplified in the then Zimbabwean Minister of Finance and Economic Development, Chris Kuruneri’s words, “We have the land and the manpower and you (China) have the resources.[24] It’s not a one-way street. We expect to mutually benefit”.[25] Therefore, to a great extent, Zimbabwe-China relations are based on an interdependent relationship which requires reciprocal commitment.

Trade relations between Zimbabwe and China intensified with the latter’s adoption of the Look East Policy in 2005. Mudyanadzo explains that under this policy, the Zimbabwean Government “sought to increase co-operation with countries in Asia and the Far East. Zimbabwe-China bilateral relations have dominated Zimbabwe’s Look East Policy because of the huge volume of mutually beneficial co-operation activities between the two countries.”[26] The Look East Policy was critical in that it came at a time when Zimbabwe was undergoing an economic meltdown partly due to sanctions imposed by the European Union (EU) and some Western countries. Chief among the imposed sanctions and punitive restrictions was the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act (ZIDERA) of 2001 and the prohibition of budgetary assistance by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.  In this respect, China opened up to Zimbabwe as the latter opened up in repositioning its diplomatic ties at a point when the Zimbabwean Government was being blacklisted by the international community.

VI. Conclusion

Zimbabwe-China relations have evolved over the years to produce dependable networks characterised by mutual benefits and expectations. Engagements in trade, tourism, agriculture, information technology, infrastructural development, among others, have served to cement and consolidate relations between the two states. This is to the extent that Zimbabwe has consistently dubbed China as its ‘all weather friend.’ However, though these relations have strong underlying economic and political foundations, cultural affinities between the two have also played an integral role in cementing bilateral relations. In order to ensure that relations between Zimbabwe and China are cemented and that fears of exploitation on the part of Zimbabwe are removed, it is vital to apply the concept of reciprocity. As this article has demonstrated, reciprocity is celebrated in both Zimbabwean and Chinese cultures. The emphasis is on cultivating relationships based on friendship, consideration and empathy. Both cultures eschew exploitation, cheating and taking advantage of the other. By promoting reciprocity, Sino-African relations can blossom and deep friendship can be established. As this article has highlighted, the historical interaction between Zimbabwe and China offers a viable platform for such a friendship to take off. Against the background of sceptics and alarmists, the article contends that the shared concept of reciprocity can promote just, equitable and sustainable relations between Zimbabwe and China.

Source of documents： Global Review