Thanks to generations of China’s collective leadership in their contributions to China’s diplomatic theories, China’s plentiful diplomatic practice and arduous exploration in theory, a distinctive diplomatic theory system has emerged consisting mainly of the overarching thought, strategic thinking and policy principles. The system of diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics, an important subsystem of the system of socialist theory with Chinese characteristics, has undergone the practicing-summarizing period during the first 30 years of reform and opening-up, and is now setting in motion the new period of development in the second 30 years of reform and opening-up. With the innovation of its diplomatic theory entering into a new historic period, China, as a global power, will mainly undertake three historic missions, namely, concentrating on the Chinese characteristics, underlining the guiding role of the diplomatic theory, and increasing its worldwide significance.

I. Concentrating on Chinese Characteristics
Self-evidently, the construction of the diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics must not copy the western theories, nor borrow the western discourses. It should instead be undertaken mainly by the Chinese themselves in a systematic and comprehensive manner.
1. Concentrating on diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics is historically necessary and realistically feasible. During the first 30 years of reform and opening-up, the construction of theories have focused on economic construction and relevant subjects, while the construction of diplomatic theory was mainly dealt with by national leadership in galvanizing their strategic thoughts and by academia in introducing Western IR theories. Chinese scholars and journals were then turning their “excitement” on western IR theories, at the expense of researching and educating on diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics in colleges. Their attentions used to focus on case studies and their impacts on China at the cost of theoretical summarization and exploration. For instance, only 25 articles can be found on the web by searching for the title “diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics” and only one book can be found on the title by searching on China’s national library on the web.[①] Few relevant books are written by foreign authors. Nothing can be found for the title “diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics” on the websites “NoteExpress” and “Springerlinker” and only 3 books can be found on the title.[②]
Notwithstanding, the downside mentioned above is only the flip side of the coin. More importantly, the construction of diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics is evolving step by step. First, the diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics is continuingly developing stage by stage. During each of its historical stages, China has developed and improved the diplomatic thought of MAO Zedong, the diplomatic thought of DENG Xiaoping, the diplomatic thought of JIANG Zeming, and the diplomatic thought of the central leadership with Comrade HU Jintao as General Secretary. The CPC’s 18th Congress has called for strengthening the theoretical construction in respect of “new thought, new vision and new conclusion” as well, which demonstrated the theoretic consciousness and theoretic self-confidence of the new central leadership with XI Jinping as General Secretary. Moreover, the diplomatic practice in contemporary China has been continually enriching China’s diplomatic theory. For example, the Report of the 18th CPC Congress combined the general idea of “building a harmonious world of enduring peace and common prosperity” with new, particular concepts of “a new type of big-power relations” and “China's development will bring more benefits to its neighbors”; and the Report called for “promoting equality, mutual trust, inclusiveness, mutual learning and mutually beneficial cooperation in international relations”.[③] In addition, the international community looks forward to China’s speeding up the construction of diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics for better understanding and emulating China’s foreign policy. The international community highly appreciates China’s diplomacy by regarding it as China’s important soft-power. More and more foreign institutions held various seminars on China’s diplomacy, in order to understand the connotation and outlook of China’s diplomacy via theory and thinking. Quite a few developing countries even hope to follow the example and draw on China’s diplomatic theory.
2. Creatively learning from what is good in all civilizations. XI Jinping stressed at the seminar celebrating the 90th Anniversary of the Founding of CPC that “We should have broad vision to watch the development and changes of the world situation and actively draw on the quintessence of all civilizations.”[④] For the construction of China’s diplomatic theory, China has paid attention ever since to localize Marxism, dialectical materialism and historical materialism in the Chinese context in terms of watching and analyzing international situation and hammered out China’s diplomatic strategy and policy thereof. At the same time, in the process of deepening reform and opening-up, China constantly drew on quintessence of all civilizations home and abroad, e.g., China’s peace and harmonious thoughts, the European-American’s holistic globalism, and developing countries’ fair and just assertions. In terms of their disciplinary designs, about 30 colleges and universities in China set up undergraduate courses of international politics and diplomatic science,[⑤] about 50 universities set up master degree courses of international politics, IR and diplomatic science,[⑥] and about 24 universities set up 39 doctorate programs of international politics, IR and diplomatic science.[⑦] In addition, “international studies” is enlisted annually in the projects issued by the National Social Science Fund.
3. Clearly defining the term “Chinese characteristics”. First, China’s diplomacy is multifaceted, which should be fully recognized. China has a long history and remains vigorous and vibrate today. Chinese history is integrated with the world while keeping its individuality. China is the second largest global economy though being a developing country. China underlines national interest though standing for international justice. Secondly, the cardinal connotation of the diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics should be precisely defined. In spite of a consensus yet to be reached home and abroad on the definition of the diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics, most would agree that the cardinal connotation of it should be comprised of diplomatically relevant Chinese ideas, Chinese principles, Chinese culture, Chinese experience and Chinese institutions. Third, China wants to gradually increase its say on diplomatic theory. Since the onset of reform and opening-up, Chinese government has put forward the “policy of friendship and partnership with neighboring countries”, “the policy of creating an amicable, secure and prosperous neighborhood” and “the policy of sharing weal and woe”, ideas that featuring the era. Remarkable progress has been made in Chinese academia in terms of localizing international diplomatic theories in the Chinese context, especially the innovation in the issue of the era, the issue of national interest, the issue of international system, and the issue of security. The localization effort is gradually agreed and accepted by the international community.
Fourth, political definition of China’s diplomacy as a task will gradually shift to academic definition. The diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics is first of all political, i.e., serving for the national interest of China. For decades to come, government documents and leaders’ speeches will remain to be important carrier of the diplomatic theory, and political principles and diplomatic principles will remain to be important part of the diplomatic theory. Notwithstanding, the construction of the diplomatic theory in its own right needs theoretic intensification and academic summarization. It also needs to rally and integrate consensus at home, integrate and publish relevant books, and cultivate and come up with a bunch of diplomatic theorists with international influence.
4. Improving the system of diplomatic theory. The Chinese dictionary The Word-Ocean defines the word “system” as “some objects that relate to, and constrain each other that constitute as an entirety.”[⑧] From now on, we should focus on the three basic frameworks, i.e., the general thought, strategic thinking and policy principle, and gradually for their expansion and deepening till after we make a comprehensive, systemic, logic, rational and holistic understanding of the diplomacy with Chinese characteristics. The general thought includes three priorities, i.e., relations between China and the outside world, relations between China’s domestic and foreign policies, and China’s diplomatic philosophy. A, The relations between China and the outside world is a dynamic process, which will concentrate on the definition of China’s role in world affairs. China should make an objective and comprehensive definition in order to map out a general goal of China’s role in global affairs and in international relations. For example, “Unremittingly promote the noble cause of peace and development for mankind” mentioned in the 18th CPC Congress is exactly the general goal worthy of in-depth studies. B, Domestic policy invariably guides foreign policy, though their interaction will focus on variable emphases and approaches. It needs to research on the retroaction of foreign policy upon domestic policy, i.e., to proactively employ foreign policy for shaping domestic environment, an issue extremely challenging, theoretic and practical. C, The task of constructing China’s diplomatic philosophy is even more arduous and imperative. As one Chinese scholar put it, “diplomatic philosophy is in fact an extension of the national political philosophy, or the national political philosophy incarnates in the foreign policy domain.” “Diplomatic philosophy consists of foundational diplomatic ideas, systemic world view, and endurable stability,” he added.[⑨] The construction of China’s diplomatic philosophy should be creative, and built on Chinese subjectivity, though it should emphasize progressive thoughts including Marxism and it should pay attention to those in common between China and the world.
The strategic thinking is a means to carry out the general thought of national diplomacy, which should be equipped with a sight of a big picture and long vision. The strategic thinking of China’s diplomacy mainly includes diplomatic strategic objective, strategic channel and strategic planning. Following the policy of reform and opening-up, the strategic goal of China’s diplomacy has been aimed at creating propitious and peaceful environment for China’s modernization; the strategic channel is the road of peace and development and the strategic planning extend from region-oriented development to a combination of region-oriented development and domain-oriented development. Since the early 1990s, China has implemented “four strategic plans” i.e., “big powers are the key, peripheries are the priority, developing countries are the foundation, and multilateralism is the important arena.”Remarking on China’s general diplomatic planning since the 16th CPC Congress, the PRC Foreign Minister YANG Jiechi pointed out, “China’s general diplomatic planning is increasingly enriching and improving to have formed a diplomatic framework, in which diplomatic working at the levels of states, regions and realms complement and reinforce each other, bilateralism and multilateralism combine, and political, economic and cultural diplomacies interact, having omnidirectionally advanced China’s diplomatic working”.[⑩] From now on, China will have to come up with global strategy, regional strategy and domain strategy, and prioritize the strategies, in order to rally consensus at home and increasing international understanding.
The policy principle is principles of actions in fulfilling various diplomatic tasks. The first is the basic principle, i.e., the coherence of China’s diplomacy, such as the five principles of peaceful coexistence, non-alignment, and all countries, big or small, are equal, etc. The second is the principles of keeping pace with times and flexibility. Things sometimes change instantly in international situation and for diplomatic works. Thus, China’s foreign policy principles vary as do the times, events and space. For example, in handling “Huangyan Island dispute” and “Diaoyu Island dispute”, China adhered to the independent and peaceful foreign policy, and at the same time actively balanced between safeguarding rights and maintaining stability, which has created a new model of protecting national rights in the new period. The last is the principle of comprehensive planning. Compared with the election-driven countries’ foreign policy, China’s foreign policy thinking is more profound, its policy planning is longer in vision and its policy prevention is more comprehensive. China issued two white papers on peace and development, declaring its relevant policies to the world and offering alternative measures respondent to specific foreign policy issues. For example, in the wake of the new situation that China’s maritime rights were impaired time and again, Chinese government solemnly declared, “China will continue to handle its differences and frictions with relevant countries, and work together with them in maintaining its relations with neighboring countries and the overall regional stability.”[11]
II. Strengthening the Guiding Role of the Theory
It is particularly important to emphasize the guiding role of the theory to China’s diplomacy in the coming decades. Since the world situation is volatile and the tasks of maintaining development and stability at home are arduous, China’s diplomacy should advance with the times to develop and improve the theory and use the theory to analyze, and respond to various challenges before the ship of China’s diplomacy can brave the wind and the waves.
1. Stepping up consciousness of diplomatic theory. As the world is growingly flat, plural and diverse nowadays, the challenges to diplomacies of the world in common, i.e., lack of strategy and dependence on information, can only be offset by stepping up consciousness of theory. At present, China’s diplomatic theory studies lags behind diplomatic practice, for lacking systemic and comprehensive summarization on diplomatic work. Leaders of some local governments and departments are poorly qualified in diplomatic theory. They went so far as to heed the “internet”, which sometimes brought China’s diplomacy into an awkward situation. Even scholars of international studies are indulged in turning-up in media, instead of applying the height and broadness of theory in analyzing and summarizing the current international situation and China’s foreign relations. Colleges and CPC party schools fail to design courses on diplomatic themes. They sometimes even substitute seminars of international situation for the education of diplomatic theory and policy. Therefore, different voices that disagree with the spirit of central government often appear in the society regarding the issues of important international situation changes and China’s external relations. In addition, the lack of theory consensus gives rise to various explanations on important theoretic issues, such as war and peace, alignment and partnership, rights and obligations of big powers, etc., which need urgent studies. In sum, we have to follow the leadership and integration of the central government and try the best to prevent China’s diplomacy from the nature of reactivity, to add up initiation, and to maintain regularity, in order to approach China’s diplomacy with definite goals and planning.
2. Stepping up “self-confidence in theory”. First, the self-confidence in diplomatic theory is to confirm the conviction in the diplomatic theory with Chinese characteristics, to adhere to independent and peaceful diplomacy, and to adhere to the path of peace and development and mutual beneficial policy. Over 60 years since the founding of PRC, especially the 30 years since reform and opening-up, the diplomatic theory has achieved universally recognized success in supervising China’s diplomacy. As the Report of the 18th CPC Congress pointed out, “the diplomatic work has achieved new progress.” Second, the confidence in theory is to develop theory in a creative spirit, and to use the spirit in guiding diplomatic work in response to the coming challenges to China’s diplomacy. On July 23, 2012, HU Jintao pointed out in his speech on the opening ceremony of the seminar of the provincial chief cadres, “in summarizing the current situation home and abroad, we are facing the unprecedented opportunities and challenges as well.”[12] Third, the confidence in diplomatic theory should be embodied in lexicon carriers. China’s diplomatic theory shall have to spontaneously master and apply Marxist world view and methodology in cultivating an academic discourse system with Chinese characteristics and in being good at responding to international concerns and quests in Chinese lexicon. That being said, we will not forget that diplomacy is about the international community that requires using different grammars to different audiences home and abroad.
3. Stepping up the guiding role of diplomatic theory. All agree that diplomatic theory guides diplomatic practice in general, but not necessary in particular. People tend to “call a spade a spade” in dealing with and interpreting diplomatic events that are more often than not urgent and time-sensitive by nature at the expense of the guiding role of diplomatic theory. As we have primarily established the diplomatic theory system with Chinese characteristics, we should give full play to the role of the diplomatic theory in dealing with complicated foreign relations, and in handling the diplomatic problems, such as big-power relations, peripheral relations and relations concerning vital interest. Along with the growingly complex and changeable international situation and the rising of China’s international status, comes the necessity for China to map out the theory that can figure out the international tendency and guide the strategic planning, the theory that covers international system, international balance of power and their inherent logics, the way and the law of the rise of emerging powers, China’s diplomatic modernization, etc.
III. Increasing the Worldwide Significance of the Theory
Diplomacy is international interactions beyond a single country. China’s diplomatic theory must take into account both Chinese characteristics and international commonality. The theory must gradually transit from emphasizing Chinese characteristics to emphasizing both Chinese characteristics and international commonality. Once the general direction as discussed above is made clear, it is necessary for China to work out the phased targets.
1. The phased targets for the coming decade. First of all, China’s diplomatic theory, mature and effective now, will be promoted to the world. Since reform and opening-up, China’s diplomatic theory has made creative contributions in initiating the concepts of a harmonious world, international trends, democratization of international relations, view of international system, and view of interest, peace and development path, strategy of mutual benefit and opening-up, etc. We shall strengthen construction of China’s diplomatic theory in terms of strengthening soft power, in order to carry out what HU Jintao has called for “making China politically more influential, economically more competitive, more endearing in its national image, and morally more attractive, and creating a propitious international environment for an all-round construction of a well-off society and accelerating socialist modernization.”[13]
Secondly, the diplomatic theory is in need of making further effort in studying the global trends and boosting the guiding role in responding to challenges of global issues. Only by fitting the historical trends and responding to the international issues, can the diplomatic theory really assume the worldwide significance. Thus, China can at once take advantage of traditional Chinese mindset of macro thinking and looking at general trends and be good at drawing on methodologies of the world by propounding comprehensive, logical and rule of law theories, hence to test if China’s diplomatic theory is globally applicable.
Finally, the worldwide significance of China’s diplomatic theory could be accrued through competition. Various theories mushroomed in this growingly plural and diverse world. They vie for the leading status of the international community. Over the last 30 years, China have proved itself in the competition regarding the product of the material world, while in next decades China will do the same in promoting China’s diplomatic theory to the world. In the process of its “going-out”, China’s diplomatic theory should dare admitting its weakness and learn from the advantages of foreigners. The diplomatic theory will hence develop through clashing and adapting to each other, ending up with a new, world-wide recognized diplomatic theory.
2. China’s diplomatic theory going out to the world will not only be good for bringing about more propitious and peaceful environment for China, but also exert far-reaching impact on the world. First, it is necessary. Now the diplomatic theories of the world are dominated by the United States/the West. The domination has disparaged China’s peaceful development, which have already brought severe consequences. For example, the new version of “emerging powers will set to undermine international balance” and “China threat” alleged by the United States/the West sells well in the world that have in fact wrought a theoretic and strategic containment on China’s rise. Moreover, the U.S. “rebalance” strategy is acceptable to some Asia-Pacific countries, which brought considerable difficulties to China’s environment. Second, it is possible. On the one hand, China’s diplomatic theory has primarily been constructed and taken effect. It can therefore be recommended comprehensively to the world. China’s diplomatic theory has already demonstrated its validity to the world in terms of the ideas of harmonious world, peaceful development, mutual beneficial cooperation, and standing up for justice. In the process to come, China’s diplomatic theory will have to respond to the common issues of global concerns and to demonstrate its validity in wider areas and on broader issues.
On the other hand, the sustained growth of the comprehensive national strength and international influence has objectively enhanced the worldwide significance of China’s diplomatic theory. Since China has increasingly integrated with the world, China’s path, China’s experience and China’s direction have become an alternative example for the international community and especially the large numbers of developing countries. Later on, China’s diplomatic theory will acquire greater significance of the world by the theory spreading across the world via more diversified forms and various channels, which will integrate each other and innovate jointly.
3. China will join the developing countries in breaking the Western monopoly over the diplomatic theory. China’s diplomatic theory’s “going-out” is surely heading towards the developing countries. China is a developing country and an important member of the non-Western countries. China and other developing countries share more moral basis and aspirations in terms of theory. Without the concerted efforts made by China, India, Burma at that time, the five principles of peaceful coexistence would not have spread so rapidly and for so long in the world. Likewise, without the BRICS on behalf of broad developing countries making the joint effort at the present day, the idea of “sharing weal and woe”--substituting consultation for confrontation--will not have exerted so profound an impact in the present international community. Over time, the developing countries will make progress in ideas and theories to break the Western monopoly lasting for centuries, as much as the developing economies grew spirally since the end of war, both constituting the historic development of the eastward shift of the gravity of the international balance of power. China’s diplomatic theory will have exerted impact more important on the United States/the West via joining the developing countries and ends up with striking a real balance and equality between the East and the West in diplomatic theory.
4. China’s diplomatic theory wants to draw more attention and claim a high ground in respect of values.
A. The value system is taken for granted a subject of construction of diplomatic theory. The value system is about “viewpoints of values with given convictions, propensity, advocate and attitude, playing a role of behavioral orientation, evaluation criterion, evaluation principle and standard.”[14] Countries over the world have their respective broad-sensed values and core values. All those values agree somewhere with each other as well as contradict and clash somewhere else with each other. International communities have their respective value orientations, value aspirations, value objectives, value criteria and value standards, sometimes agreeable, sometimes conflicting. Therefore, China’s diplomatic theory in construction should pay attention to value issues.
B. If history is of any guide, various major value systems may tolerate and coexist with each other. Peoples have shared values, though with various interpretations and pursuits. Cultures, nations, institutions and communities will not abandon their respective, major or core values to accept values of other’s in a considerably long period to come. Nevertheless, peaceful coexistence between major values was not unusual in history. For example, Chinese and foreign cultural coexistence and integration reached the then peak of the world in the heyday of the Tang Dynasty. In the global era, mutual tolerance and coexistence among major values are not only necessary, but also possible. For example, Chinese ideas of “a harmonious world”, “putting people first” and “rule by law and morality” and international counterparts of “democracy and peace” are somewhere in common, approximate and communicative.
C. Pushing forward China’s advanced values and making it an important part of the international mainstream values. Chinese civilization has continued for over 5000 years. The basic ideas of “tranquility, synergy, kindheartedness, fair” and so on, are as educational as ever. First, Chinese values is increasingly known to the world. Western values repudiated Chinese values as anomaly long since, hence Chinese values was hardly known to the world. However, as both China’s comprehensive national strength and its international exchanges continually grow, especially as China stepped up promoting Chinese values in recent years, the values have been increasingly known to the peoples of the world. Second, Chinese values will only progress via its clashes and adaptation with the values of all nations across the world, especially the Western values. For example, “peace and development” and “sharing weal and woe” are those of the important ideas being acceptable and identified in the international community. Finally, in terms of trend, Chinese values are shifting from margin to the core of the world values and will become an important part of the international mainstream values in a considerably long historical process to come.
D. “Let existent values coexist and emerging values be co-shaped”. This is one of the important approaches to build the new shared values of Mankind. The greatest challenges to Mankind at present are the global issues, which can be dealt with and solved only by global cooperation that transcends cultures, ideologies, territorial frontiers, ethnics, religions, etc. Along with Mankind sharing common interest and common missions on global issues, comes the formation of the shared values of the mankind. Values to be co-shaped can first be started in Asia. China has transformed Lee Kuan Yew’s “Asian values” into “Asian spirit”: standing on its own feet, being bold in opening new ground, being open and inclusive and sharing weal and woe. China will remain a good neighbor, friend and partner of other Asian countries.[15] For the present stage, the construction of the shared values of Mankind should focus on peace, development, cooperation, and eco-environment, living standard, production and cultural environs of high qualities.
IV. Conclusion
The construction of China’s diplomatic theory should be part and parcel assumed by Chinese themselves. We cannot expect Western theorists and practitioners to do the job, nor should we take a shortcut by copying Western diplomatic theories and IR theories. In short, for the trio missions of the innovation of China’s diplomatic theory, the tasks in the first stage are: to use Chinese lexicon in summarizing Chinese diplomatic theory; to use Chinese diplomatic practice in developing Chinese diplomatic theory; and to use Chinese thoughts in enriching China’s diplomatic theory. These are what we are doing now. But we should look at tasks in the second, third and ensuing stages. We should try hard to make China’s diplomatic theory be worldwide significant to a larger extent. The going-out of China’s diplomatic theory is a long historic process, which will continually dilute Chinese characteristics and add commonality of the world. At the same time, the elements of China’s diplomatic theory will draw on and integrate the foreign diplomatic theories, in order to reach the combination of Chinese characteristics and the worldwide significance. Thanks to the joint efforts of the world community, the mainstream international diplomatic theories will see more pluralism, diversification and fairness, which will help push the world’s peace, development and cooperation in larger areas and more vigorously.

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